Authors:  Joanna C.M. Cole, PhD; Renee Boynton-Jarrett, MD, DSc; and Jennifer Mulcahy-Avery, BS

Problem Statement:  Empirical research has documented that 85% of youth to have witnessed community violence and 66% report direct victimization. Racial/ethnic minority youth and those residing in urban areas experience a disproportionate burden of community violence exposure. In 2010, 65% of Boston public school students reported witnessing an act of violence in the past year. Between 2002-2007, the Boston city homicide rate has tripled. Due to the ubiquitous nature of violence in their communities, inner city youth are at greatest risk for experiencing significant psychological distress, including PTSD, depression, and behavioral problems resulting from trauma exposure.

Despite increasing rates of violence in urban settings, and heightened awareness of the extent to which violence exposure impacts mental health, school performance and health behaviors, there is limited understanding of behavioral interventions that may mitigate the negative psychological effects of community violence on minority youth and optimize health and development. Trauma Focused-Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) has been recognized as the an efficacious individual behavioral therapy for traumatized children. However, due to the large number of exposed youth, the accessibility of individual therapy may be suboptimal. To date, no studies of group treatment using TF-CBT have been conducted with adolescents exposed to community violence.

The utility of TF-CBT for reducing symptoms post-community violence exposure and improving psychosocial functioning when delivered in a group setting is unknown. The current study examined the clinical effectiveness of a 10-week TF-CBT intervention in a small group setting among adolescent boys of color, ages 12-15 years old, with a history of community violence exposure. Specifically, we evaluate the effectiveness of the TF-CBT group intervention on change in PTSD, somatic, and depressive symptoms, emotional regulation, and externalizing behaviors. Next we evaluate the acceptability of and satisfaction with the intervention for participants and their caregivers using semi-structured qualitative interviews.

Subjects:  The sample (N = 12 maternal caregiver-youth dyads) was drawn from an outpatient psychiatry department and primary care clinic in an urban medical hospital during two rounds of recruitment. Adolescent boys between the ages of 12 and 15 (Mean age = 14.4 years) were referred to the study by their outpatient therapists, medical providers, or self-referral. There were four participants in Group 1 and eight in Group 2. Ultimately, nine youth completed the 10-week group intervention. The self-reported race/ethnicity of the study participants was 66% Black (including Haitian, African-American, Trinidadian), 17% Latino (including Dominican Republic and Puerto Rican) and 17% Other race/ethnicity. The majority of the sample (83%) qualified for Mass Health (e.g., Medicaid) managed care insurance. Although most youth had witnessed a traumatic event (e.g., assault of family member, neighborhood shooting, murder of a family member, witness stabbing), the majority were also direct victims of violence (e.g., physical assault, robbed at gunpoint, gun crossfire).

Procedure:  The adolescent participants were screened using the following scales the: (1) Teen Conflict Scale measures self-efficacy regarding conflict avoidance; (2) Kid Cope Scale measures resilient coping with violence exposure; (3) Provision of Social Relations measures social support; (4) Child Depression Inventory; (5) PTSD Symptom Scale. (6) Violence Exposure Screen; And (7) The Emotion Expression Scale for Children which measures emotion regulation.

Maternal caregivers completed the: (1) The Vanderbilt ADHD Scale; 2) The Pediatric Symptom Checklist; (3) The Berkman-Syme Social Support Index; and (4) a demographic questionnaire on psychosocial needs, financial hardships, school performance, violence exposure, and health history of the adolescent male.

Participants received a 10-session TF-CBT intervention delivered via small groups. Techniques were introduced using a combination of psychoeducation, CBT skills, age appropriate and culturally sensitive social problem solving skills, group cohesion games, and safety planning activities.

Primary analyses examined intervention effectiveness using standard multivariate linear regression models to estimate the mean difference in outcome scores between baseline and the end of the 10-week intervention for somatic, PTSD, and depressive symptoms, externalizing behaviors, coping, and emotional regulation. Analyses controlled for group placement. In addition, semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted to explore program satisfaction and analyzed by looking for themes and patterns of the participants’ and caregivers’ answers. For the violence exposure, psychosocial assessment, school performance, and health history, the mean change in score for each group was calculated and compared. Finally, participation rate will be measured in terms of the average number of sessions attended by each participant.

Results:  Our preliminary findings revealed a significant reduction in PTSD and somatic symptoms and externalizing behaviors between baseline and post-intervention screening. Additionally, quality of youth of social support networks increased over the intervention period. Depressive symptoms, however, were not improved. Notably, the level of exposure to community violence remained high throughout the group intervention.

A robust theme that emerged from our baseline, semi-structured interviews with youth and caregivers surrounded the commonality of incidents of violence in daily life, and a sense of helplessness to intervene in response to the emotional needs. Both youth and caregiver qualitative interviews post-intervention revealed greater self-awareness, sense of trust, improved coping skills, reduced feelings of isolation, improved communication strategies, and school performance among youth. Acceptability of the intervention content was high as was satisfaction with the group.

Conclusions:  Our findings suggest high acceptability of a group TF-CBT intervention among minority youth and their caregivers, as well as, significant improvement in PTSD, somatic symptoms and externalizing behaviors. Baseline qualitative findings revealed both the commonality of community violence and a sense of helplessness to respond to socio-emotional needs. These findings underscore the need to provide more services and resources for caregivers and at-risk youth that specifically address the impact of toxic social exposures in daily life, such as community violence.

Overall, based on preliminary qualitative findings, a TF-CBT group model seems to be effective in many ways. Changes in participants’ self-perception, in addition to changes in perception of trust in other people, were observed. The group therapy context, in which participants felt respected and experienced credibility coming from the group, contributed to the restructuring of these perceptions. Moreover, the group represented a safe place, in which bonds of trust were developed among participants and co-facilitators, thus promoting a differentiated model of interpersonal relationships that were sustained post-group termination.

Authors:  Russell A. Jones, MEd; and Dennis M. Kivlighan, PhD

Rationale and Literature Review:  Lack of attendance is a problem in group therapy because it leads to problems with group cohesiveness and can cause further absences among members (Yalom, 1995). When group members miss group sessions, the group climate is disrupted (Fieldsteel, 1996). Irregular attendance may hinder meaningful work for the rest of the group, often leaving other group members feeling insecure, worried, or angry, and often reluctant to disclose private information (MacNair & Corazzini, 1994). Finally, there is a strong association between poor group attendance and eventual group dropout (Stone, & Rutan, 1984). It is therefore important to understand the predictors of poor attendance.

Little empirical literature exists on the relationship between in-session group processes and attendance. In one study, Ogrodniczuk, Piper, and Joyce (2006) found that a sense of belongingness to the group mediated the relationship between member interpersonal distress and attendance. Specifically, lower interpersonal distress was related to a lowered sense of belonging, and this lowered sense of belonging was related to worse group attendance. McCallum, Piper, Ogrodniczuk, and Joyce (2002) investigated relationships between early group process and dropping out from a recently completed randomized clinical trial of two forms of time-limited group psychotherapy for complicated grief. They found that dropouts reported experiencing significantly less positive affect than continuers and therapists reported feeling less close to dropouts. These studies suggest that in-session group processes are related to group member attendance; however neither study took into account the nested nature of group data or the related problem of level of analysis.

It is axiomatic among group theorists and researchers that the group has an effect on the individual (Yalom, 1995). Few studies, however have examined how the behavior, perceptions, or reactions of other group members affect the behavior, perceptions, or reactions of a group member. This is especially true for the research examining attendance. To date, only one study has examined in session experiences and the effects of other group members as predictors of member absences in the following session. Miles, Paquin, and Kivlighan (in press) examined the relationship between the amount and consistency of the intimate behaviors in the group, and attendance in the following session. They found that being the member who had the highest number of intimate behaviors in a session, and having a low level of intimate behaviors by the other group members in a session, both increased the likelihood that a member would be absent in the following session. Given these findings, it seems possible that partner effects (the perceptions and reactions of the other group members) influence attendance in groups.

Hypotheses:  Therefore, we examined individual and group post-session evaluation and post-session mood as predictors of attendance at the following group session. Specifically we hypothesized that: 1) there will be a positive relationship between individual members’ and other group members’ evaluation of the session as deep and smooth and their attendance in the following session; and 2) there will also be a positive relationship between a group member’s and other group members’ evaluations of post-session mood as positive and aroused and their attendance in the following session.

Method Participants Groups:  Groups were four interpersonal growth groups, conducted at a large, Midwestern university. Groups were each led by a single graduate student leader enrolled in a group practicum. Groups were led using an interpersonal and interactional model (Yalom, 2005). Group members. The group members were 36 students enrolled in an elective course on group processes.

Group leaders:  Groups were facilitated by four graduate students in counseling psychology who were enrolled in a year-long group counseling practicum. As a prerequisite to this practicum, group leaders had satisfactorily completed two courses in group theory and practice, and one semester of group practicum.

Measures:  Session Evaluation Questionnaire (SEQ). The SEQ-Version 3 (Stiles, 1980) was given to measure the impact of the group session, and is comprised of a session evaluation section and post-session mood section. The SEQ measures two independent evaluative dimensions of participants' perceptions of their sessions, called Depth and Smoothness, and two dimensions of their post session mood, called Positivity and Arousal (Stiles and Snow, 1984). The stem “This session was:" precedes the first 12 items (session evaluation), bad-good, dangerous-safe, empty-full, easy-labored, worthless-valuable, deep-shallow, rough-smooth, tense-relaxed, pleasant-unpleasant, powerful-weak, definite-uncertain, and special-ordinary. The stem "Right now I feel:" precedes the second 12 items (post-session mood), happy-sad, angry-pleased, active-still, uncertain-definite, involved-detached, calm-excited, confident-afraid, alert-sleepy, friendly-unfriendly, slow-fast, joyful-sad, and quiet-aroused. Scores for each item of the SEQ range from 1 to 7.

Procedure:  Groups met twice a week for 14 weeks, for a total of 28 sessions. Sessions lasted one hour and 20 minutes each. After each session, group members completed the SEQ.

Data Analyses:  In the current study, the model proposed by Kenny et al. (2002) for analyzing data from small groups was used to address the non-independence problem of small group data by nesting session attendance within individual group members, and individual group members within groups. This three-level, hierarchical model was used to examine both an individual group member’s own influence and the group’s influence on the probability of that individual group member’s attendance the following group session.

Results and Discussion:  Related to hypothesis one, we found that individual scores of positivity and group scores for session depth and smoothness increased the likelihood that an individual would be absent in the following session. However, individual scores in for session depth or smoothness did not predict attendance for individuals. Related to hypothesis two, we found that group scores on depth, smoothness, and arousal predicted their attendance in the next session. Group scores of positivity did not predict attendance for other group members.

This research shows that context matters when predicting members’ absences in groups. In predicting if a group member will be absent from a session, it is important to know his or her post-session mood in the previous session in relation to the session evaluation and mood of the other members. It is important for researchers to examine variables that take into account the group context.

Author:  Ya-Chin H. Lang, EdD

This study is to evaluate the efficiency of the group counseling that was consisted of 12 domestic female offenders under 16-week program in a female jail in Taiwan. It is the first time this jail designed a counseling program for those women who were accused of homicide, specifically their victims were either their husbands/partners or children. This program was also mandated by the Ministry of Justice as a part of correction education starting from year 2010.

The purposes of the counseling include: 1. to help these women brave all accuses and difficulties they have been facing since they committed the crime; 2. to educate them the knowledge of domestic violence and gender equality; and 3. to encourage them to examine and appreciate their lives and to plan ahead about their futures.

The average age of 12 females were 36.75, ranging from 52 to 27 years of old. All but one of them accepted at least 9 years of education, especially eight graduated from high schools or vocational high schools; the rest one had learning disability. Seven out of 12 killed their husbands/partners, four killed their own children, and another one killed her niece’s son. Ten of them were victims of marriage violence, and the other two committed suicide together with their children. All of them seemed to have a very miserable and unspeakable past.

A questionnaire was designed to be used as pre- and post test, which contained personal data, ten open-ended questions regarding their marriage life, and 16 statements regarding violence. There were another 43 statements included in the post-test to let them evaluate this group counseling. Besides, the females’ drawings and observation records by the group co-leader were used to compare to the results of questionnaires. The analysis and discussion will be submitted to the Ministry of Justice as a reference for the authority to reconsider whether this kind of program would continue for next year.

Since the program was just ended in November, data collect and analysis are still under process, it is expected that the report will be finished by the end of January, 2011.

Authors:  Glori G. Gray, MA, MSW; Kimberly N. Snow, MA; Haley R. Crowl, BA; and Amanda L. Smithberger, MA

Problem Statement:  Group therapy has proven to be as or more effective for the treatment of psychological disorders than traditional individual psychotherapy (Yalom, 1985). These interventions provide a distinct opportunity for self and interpersonal learning, allowing group members opportunity to review the effects of trauma (Nolan et al., 2002; Gill, 1991; Briere & Elliott, 1997). Group treatment has long been understood to be an effective way of facilitating interpersonal awareness, and the instillation of hope and meaning, as group members join with other members on their healing journey (Foy, Eriksson, & Trice, 2001).

The literature suggests evidence for significant effects from supportive, experiential, and cognitive-behavioral models; each group intervention generally provides empirically solid interventions (Foy, et al., 2001). For older children and adolescents, integrated and cognitive-behavioral modalities are available; to date, however, there is limited empirical support favoring one particular model of group therapy over another (Foy, et al., 2001). There is also limited exploration into the use of groups that incorporate creative arts interventions. Experientially-based groups provide important opportunities to create emotional distance in trauma situations, allowing youth the chance to work out complex problems and emotions that affect them (Schaefer & Carey, 1994). Previous research with distressed children suggests that creative approaches to therapy encourage the expression of emotions, increased emotional resilience, reduced emotionally reactivity, increased mastery and increased relatedness to others (Tegner, I., Fox, J., Philipp, R., & Thorne, P., 2009).

Several approaches to group therapy exist, as varied as the plethora of theoretical orientations abounding today. Among these options, experiential and creative arts and writing therapies exist on one end of the continuum, while more traditional cognitive-behavioral approaches exist on the other end. The purpose of this research is to explore two alternate approaches to group therapy as they relate specifically to building resilience in at-risk youth.

The current study involves three groups of high-risk youth, including one group of adolescents receiving an experiential and creative arts group intervention; a second group of adolescents involved in a structured cognitive-behavioral group; and a third group receiving no intervention and serving as a control group. Each of these three groups is given the Resilience Scales for Adolescents (RSCA) as a pre and post-test measure in addition to a brief qualitative instrument.

Method:  Youth at risk for failure in school, trauma, and/or interpersonal victimization were recruited for participation; these include both males and females, ages 11 to 20. The three groups involve a psycho-educational group for 11 at-risk high school students in an alternative school setting; an experiential arts group for 16 at-risk adolescents from a voluntary residential facility; and 13 youth assigned to a control group. The students from the alternative high school are ages 15 to 19 and are participating in a 12-week structured psycho-educational group, stressing "Safety", "Emotional management", "Loss", and "Future" (SELF). This trauma-informed program integrates cognitive-behavioral concepts while teaching resilience skills in the areas of safety, emotional management, loss, and developing goals for the future. The field of traumatology suggests that these areas should be the focus of treatment for individuals with trauma histories (Bath, 2008; Kruczek, 2006).

The other experimental group involves teens raised by single mothers because of their father’s absence, due to abuse, neglect, death, or otherwise. Based on a foundation of experiential, narrative, and art therapy approaches for adolescents, “Chill and Spill” is a guided therapeutic group designed to empower adolescents through the use of art and creative writing to “articulate and heal from traumatic or difficult issues in their lives,” (Murray & Basham, 2010).

The RSCA (Prince-Embury, 2008) is being used to measure three areas of perceived strengths/vulnerabilities related to psychological resilience—Sense of Mastery, Sense of Relatedness, and Emotional Reactivity. The RSCA Personal Resilience Profile is typically used in individual clinical, school, and therapeutic group settings, and is often as a screening measure within prevention programs. The 64 items can be compared with other Youth Inventories to connect resilience characteristics with specific symptoms for comprehensive treatment planning. The 5-point Likert scale allows for response options ordered from 0 (never) to 4 (almost always). The self-report scales are written at a third-grade reading level and may be used in combination or as separate global scales.

A brief post-test survey consists of the following: three open-ended questions, two questions on a 5-point Likart- scale, and 11 questions using a 4-point Likert scale. The items pertain to self-perceived emotional state before and after intervention, challenges faced by the participant, learning that occurred as a result of the intervention, attitude toward the intervention and facilitator, and usefulness of the intervention for helping to solve life problems.

A repeated-measures ANOVA will be used to compare the effects of the experimental groups with the control group, to assess the impact of the creative arts intervention group with the more directive psycho-educational group.

Results/Discussion:  This (in-process) study seeks to evaluate any differences in resilience scores between groups utilizing distinct modalities. It is hypothesized that both of the experimental groups (cognitive and creative arts) will show significantly greater gains in resilience from Time 1 to Time 2 in comparison with the control group. The results of this study and a discussion of the findings as they relate to previous research and future therapeutic work with high-risk youth will be presented, following the completion of phase 2 of this study.

Future researchers want to understand the deeper implications that contribute to “protection” for children in maladaptive and diverse environments. As studies evolve, researchers hope to develop a better understanding of how processes work within and across levels of analysis to actually produce resilience in children (Masten & Obradovic, 2006). Study of resilience factors, particularly in residential/school settings has the potential for helping children from various backgrounds achieve and perform better, while also allowing professionals to promote these protective factors in vulnerable community settings (Christiansen, Christiansen, & Howard, 1997).

Authors:  Jennifer Bahrman, BA; Brett A. Shumway, BA; Tracie Hitter, MS; Ginger Dickson, PhD; and Michael Waldo, PhD

Statement of Problem:  The field of counseling and psychology has moved toward a more multiculturally competent model (APA Ethical Standards, 2002). A large body of literature has been devoted to the development of effective multicultural counselor training methods (Knapik & Miloti, 2006; Toporek, 2001; Pieterse et al., 2009). Experts suggest that multiple instructional strategies are needed to promote students’ multicultural competencies (Roysircar, 2004; Tomlinson-Clarke & Ota Wang, 1999). It has been recommended that participatory strategies, such as small group discussions, be incorporated into multicultural counselor training (Dickson & Shumway, in press). Further, studies have indicated the effectiveness of group process on therapeutic outcomes (Burlingame, Fuhriman, & Johnson, 2004). Research indicates that personal growth groups may be effective in promoting multicultural competencies in counseling students (Rowell & Benshoff, 2008). However, a review of the literature reveals that therapeutic factors (defined by Yalom (1995) as “the actual mechanisms of effecting change in the patient” (p. xi)), have not been assessed in a multicultural training group. An understanding of which therapeutic factors occur in multicultural training groups could allow for more proficient and effective multicultural training. This study sought to assess the prominence of therapeutic factors over time in a multicultural training group.

Hypotheses:  It was hypothesized that therapeutic factors would be associated with different stages of group development (Waldo, 1985). Therapeutic factors were hypothesized to transition over the span of the group sessions.

Methods:  This study explored changes in group process over time in a multicultural experiential and exposure training group. Six participants were recruited from counseling related master’s level graduate courses (5 women, 1 man; age M = 24.5, SD = 2.07) from a southwestern university. Participants were from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Participants self-identified their ethnicities as: Hispanic (n = 3) and European-American (n = 3). The participants self-identified their religious affiliations as: Atheist (one with Christian background and one with Jewish background), one Christian, one Catholic, one non-religious, and one participant declined to answer.

Participants attended eight, one-hour and forty minute group sessions. Upon completion of each group session, participants were asked to complete the Post Session Critical Incident Questionnaire (PSCIQ), which is an open-ended questionnaire used to assess for prominent therapeutic factors as identified by Yalom (1995). Each participant was assigned one session in which they were asked to share their respective personal experiences with their self-identified culture. Approximately 50 percent of each session was devoted to participant delivered information. The remaining approximately 50 percent of each group session was spent in group processing of group member provided cultural information.

Results:  Two raters rated each PSCIQ for prominent therapeutic factors. The inter-rater rate of agreement was 87.2 percent. From the original 48 PSCIQs collected from six participants over a course of eight sessions, two PSCIQs were unavailable (one session missed by one participant; one PSCIQ not completed by one participant), and seven were deemed by both raters to be unrateable because the responses were indicative of content from the session and not processes or experiences. Thus, analysis was based on 39 group participants’ PSCIQs. The following therapeutic factors were identified: imparting of information (n = 16), interpersonal learning (n = 6), cohesiveness (n = 6), catharsis (n = 4), universality, (n = 4), altruism (n = 1), imitative behavior (n = 1), and socializing techniques (n = 1). From these therapeutic factors, imparting of information occurred throughout six of the eight sessions with the greatest prominence occurring during the initial group meetings. Interpersonal learning occurred during the first five sessions and was not seen at all during the last three sessions. Cohesiveness first occurred during the fourth session and carried on from this session, with it being the only therapeutic factor present during the termination session. The other therapeutic factors (e.g. catharsis, universality, altruism, imitative behavior and socializing techniques) occurred sporadically throughout the group experience.

Discussion:  The study hypothesized that the group process, as demonstrated through Yalom’s therapeutic factors (1995), would change as the group developed over time. Results of this study partially supported the hypothesis. There was an apparent transition from predominantly imparting of information during initial sessions, to cohesiveness between the group members in middle to later sessions. Although imparting of information continued to be the predominant therapeutic factor overall (n = 16), there was a decrease in occurrence from the first session (n = 5) to the last session (n = 0). Some limitations of this study include the seven PSCIQs that were not rated. As these responses consisted of content from the sessions rather than experiences or processes, these questionnaires unfortunately were not able to be included. In a future conducting of this group, or a similar group, it would be advisable to make the participants aware to respond in terms of group process. Similarly, the responses that were rated were done so based solely on literal inclusion of therapeutic factor terminology. In many instances other therapeutic factors may have been applicable; however, due to insufficient response information, the literal therapeutic factors were analyzed. In future groups, it would be advisable to encourage participants to be more thorough in their responses. Overall, the results of this study indicate that some changes occur over the span of a group experience. Future groups that eliminate some of the identified limitations may provide interesting results on this topic.

Authors:  Brett A. Shumway, BA; Jennifer Bahrman, BA; Tracie Hitter, MS; Ginger Dickson, PhD; and Michael Waldo, PhD

Statement of problem:  Ethnic identity development may be a necessary step in preparing counselor trainees for multicultural competence (Field, Chavez-Korell, Rodríguez, 2010). Experts have suggested that multiple instructional strategies are needed to promote students’ multicultural competencies (Roysircar, 2004; Tomlinson-Clarke & Ota Wang, 1999). It has been proposed that exposure strategies (e.g. guest speakers) and participatory strategies (e.g. small group discussions) should be incorporated into training programs (Dickson & Shumway, in press). Research indicates that personal growth groups may be effective in promoting ethnic identity development in counseling students when connected to a multicultural counseling class (Rowell & Benshoff, 2008). However, no study has attempted to examine a group that is specifically designed to allow students’ personal cultural exploration and sharing of their experiences with their respective cultures. This study evaluated a group intervention that was deigned to integrate individual cultural identity development, exposure to other cultures, and participatory methods into counselor training. Group members were offered opportunities to become more aware of their own cultural identity and are provided intimate exposure to diverse cultures in a participatory manner that is intended to foster overall multicultural competence for counselor trainees.

Hypotheses:  Three hypotheses were made that participants’ level of ethnic identity (awareness, exploration, resolution) would not significantly change during the extended baseline period. Three additional hypotheses were made that participants’ level of ethnic identity (awareness, exploration, resolution) would significantly increase as a result of participation in a multicultural awareness group.

Study design:  This was a quasi-experimental extended baseline design evaluating a small group treatment intervention. Participants’ ethnic identity development was assessed two weeks prior to the intervention, at the beginning of the intervention, and at the end of the intervention.

Sample:  Six counseling master’s level graduate students (5 women, 1 man, mean age 24.5, SD = 2.07) in counseling programs at a Southwestern university participated in the study. Participants reported to be from diverse ethnic (3 self-identified as Hispanic, 3 self-identified as European American) and religious (participants individually identify as: Atheist with a Christian background, Atheist with a Jewish background, Christian, spiritual non-religious, Catholic, one participant declined to answer) backgrounds.

Instruments:  The Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS; Umaña-Taylor, Yazedjian, & Bámaca-Gomez, 2004) was used to measure participants’ ethnic identity development. Preliminary reviews of the measure indicate its reliability and validity as a measure of ethnic identity development across cultures (Anderson Moore & Lippman, 2005).

Procedures:  After receiving an initial screening and explanation of the group, all participants were administered the EIS two weeks prior to the initial group session. No other contact was made with the group members preceding the first group session. Upon arrival to the first group session, participants were re-administered the EIS, establishing an extended baseline. Participants attended eight one-hour and fifty minute group sessions. Each participant was assigned one session in which they were asked to share their respective personal experience with their self-defined culture. Approximately 50% of each session was devoted to participant delivered information. Additionally, approximately 50% of each group session was spent in group processing of member provided information. The EIS was re-administered a final time upon the conclusion of the last group session.

Results:  Wilcoxon Signed Rank Tests confirmed four of the six hypotheses tested in this study. Levels of ethnic identity (awareness, exploration, resolution) did not significantly change during the extended baseline period. Participant levels of exploration did increase significantly (Z = -2.02, p < .04) in response to the group intervention. There was no significant increase in level of awareness or resolution, after completion of treatment. Mean participant increase in EIS subscales of Awareness, Exploration, and Resolution were respectively .5, 4.6, and 3. Overall EIS scores had a mean increase of 8.16 with a mode and median of 12. Two participants with the lowest increase in overall EIS (mean = 1) received high pre group intervention EIS scores (mean = 62) that were near the maximum overall score of 67 allowed by the measure. The remaining four participants received mean Awareness, Exploration, and Resolution subscale scores of .75, 6.5, and 4.5, with an overall mean increase of 11.75.

Conclusions:  Results of this study should be considered with several limitations. The sample size (n=6) was small, causing difficulty in determining the generalizability of the results and limiting the possible statistical significance of the findings. The range of scores for the subscale awareness was near the upper limit of the measure (mean = 22.33 with a maximum range of 24). A larger sample size and a broader measure are needed to provide more accurate results. Moreover, further research is needed to develop methods of eliciting ethnic identity awareness and resolution. However, in light of these limitations, the results have implications for multicultural counselor training. Counselor ethnic identity development may be essential in preparing trainees to work with a diverse clientele (Field, Chavez-Korell, Rodríguez, 2010). Personal exploration may be a necessary step in the ethnic identity development process. These results suggest that multicultural training in a group setting that allows personal cultural exploration and sharing may be an effective form of eliciting ethnic identity development.

Authors:  Diomaris E. Jurecska, MA; Tabitha S. Becker, MA; Mary A. Peterson, PhD, MBA; and Scott Kaper, PhD

Abstract unavailable.

Authors:  Robin E. Lange, MA; and Maria Riva, PhD

According to Abel et al. (1987), approximately 39 million Americans are survivors of childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Along with the physical trauma present at the time of a sexual assault, survivors of CSA also present with a wide range of mental health consequences following the assault, the effects of which may never fully dissipate (Petrak & Hedge, 2004). Despite nearly four decades of research related to sexual trauma, little is known about what treatments are effective in treating the range of symptoms common to survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Authors have suggested that group therapy may be especially effective at improving the quality of life for individuals with a history of CSA due to the ability of group to counteract the sense of shame and secrecy associated with the experience as well as providing a safe framework for rebuilding social bonds and trust broken in childhood (Herman, 1997; Mendelsohn et al., 2007; Parker et al., 2007).

In the literature that has accrued over the years on female sexual assault survivors, it is clear that while almost all women would report their assault experience as negative, their ability to recover psychologically following the assault varies. A body of literature has evolved which suggests that the ability to effectively access and utilize social support explains the differential recovery rate following sexual trauma (Borja et al., 2006; Charuvastra & Cloitre, 2008; Ford et al., 1997; Hyman et al., 2003; Kernhof et al., 2008; Lyons et al., 1998; Norris & Kanisty, 1996; Pearlman & Courtois, 2005). While research on the salience of social bonds in post-traumatic growth is promising, the literature up until now has focused more on the characteristics of CSA survivors and less on treatment. The importance of social bonds in recovery has been suggested, yet few studies include measures of ability to form interpersonal bonds. Twenty years ago, Riva (1990) suggested that few rigorous studies of the efficacy of group treatments for adult CSA survivors have been conducted, despite the general consensus that group treatment is efficacious for this population. This statement continues to be true today. A study of the effects of group treatment and the ability to form interpersonal relationships over time on symptom severity for adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse is warranted and is an appropriate ‘next step’ in advancing the science in this area.

This study seeks to determine if effectiveness of group treatment varies based on the ability of group members to utilize social support. This study also compares two types of group treatments, open and closed groups. By studying which treatment has the greatest effect on symptoms, more targeted treatment for this population may be provided in the future. The following hypotheses are being tested:

• The ability to form social bonds in group treatment will significantly predict symptom severity.

• Session to session patterns of improvement in group treatment will be significantly different based on ability to form social bonds. Those with greatest ability to form social bonds will have the greatest improvements in functioning.

Additionally, one research question is being explored:

• Is there is a difference in outcome (social support/bonds and symptom severity) between clients in open group treatments compared to those in closed groups?

In order to address the two hypotheses and one research question that form this study, two research designs have been used. The first hypothesis and the single research question will be tested using a pretest-posttest non-equivalent groups design. The second hypothesis has been addressed using a mixed design in which both between groups and within groups variables are measured. Data for this study is being collected weekly using the following measures:

• The Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL, Cohen, 1988)

• The Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form Revised (WAI-SR; Hatcher & Gillaspy, 2006)

• The Outcome Questionnaire-45 (OQ-45; Lambert, Hannover, Nisslmuler, Richard, & Kordy, 1996)

In addition to the above measures, group and participant characteristics are assessed using two author-designed questionnaires. One assesses the characteristics of the individual groups and is administered to group leaders. The second is a demographic questionnaire that is administered to participants. The presence of CSA and adult sexual trauma are assessed using the Sexual Experiences Survey Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV; Koss, Abbey, Campbell, Cook, & Norris et al., 2007) and the Childhood Sexual Abuse Questionnaire (CASQ; Godbout, Sabourin, & Lussier, 2009).

Adult participants have been recruited from preexisting therapy groups at community mental health centers in a major metropolitan area. Several mental health centers have agreed to participate and currently six group members have completed the study. A wide range of groups with a stated goal of treating sexual trauma survivors have been included in this study. Both open and closed groups are included in the study and incorporate a variety of theoretical approaches to treatment (exposure based, CBT, psychoeducational, process oriented, etc.). Group therapy clients who agree to participate in the study are followed over their first ten sessions of group treatment. This study is in the middle stages of data collection with one group having completed the data collection process and a minimum of six additional groups are scheduled for participation in the next two months. Data collection will be complete by May 2011. This study will include a minimum of 40 participants.

Authors:  Sean B. Hall, MA; and Nina W. Brown, EdD

Training groups for mental health professionals are highly recommended by professional organizations such as the American Counseling Association, The American Psychological Association, and the American Association for Group Psychotherapists. These are usually implemented in a training program and can have different designations, e.g. T-group, support group, process group, experiential training group, and so on. (Yalom, 2005) Two characteristics of these groups can put participants at risk; the lack of screening, and the mandate to attend where the penalty for non-attendance or dropping out of the group negatively affects the person. While difficult or toxic groups can occur in any setting, the particular characteristics of the training program's T-group can present additional difficulties. These difficulties will be compiled from the literature for the study and submitted to a panel of experts in training group leaders from two national organizations. Purpose The purpose for the study are to develop a set of indicators of potentially harmful or destructive forces/acts/attitudes/behaviors in a T-group of mental health professionals that can guide group leaders, faculty, and other responsible observers in deciding if an intervention, such as disbanding the group, is needed for group members' emotional and/or psychological safety.

Research Question:  What are the indicators that a T-group for mental health professionals in ineffective and potentially harmful? Participants Senior faculty in counseling and psychology mental health professional preparation programs currently serving on the Board for The Society of Group Psychology and Group Psychotherapy, and T-group leaders who are members of the American Group Psychotherapy Association will be surveyed. The AGPA group will be composed of psychiatrists, psychlogists, counselors and social workers. The prospective N is 25.

Methodology:  A survey instrument was developed from the literature about difficult group members, difficult groups, and experiences with ineffective T-groups. ( Examples of items are at the end of this proposal) Participants will score each item from 1 ( not an indicator or a poor indicator) to 5 ( extremely important indicator) on its importance as an indicator of potential harmful effects, and the frequency with which it has been observed by the participant as a group leader. Participants will also be asked if they have experienced a T-group that was difficult, disturbing, or was disbanded because of members' behaviors or hints of potential harm to some members. Space will also be provided for participants to write additional suggested indicators.

• Approval for the research will be sought from the instutution's IRB.

• Participants ill be informed about the study and invited to participate. Consent forms will be provided.

• The survey will be submitted to participants via Survey Monkey.

• Results will be analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Examples of Survey Items:  Following are some behaviors and observations/feelings that can occur in some T-groups. Rate each from 1( little or no importance) - 5(extremely important indicator) on its importance as an indicator for potential harm, and also rate each item 1 (no observance) - 5 ( Very frequently observed )on the frequency you have observed this happening in a T-group.

• Group members express continual catharsis without interpersonal or intrapersonal learning also occurring.

• Many members often make snarky, snarly comments and remarks to each other and to the leader, but are not receptive to the receiver's response.

• Members seem to catch each other's negaive emotions, and then these begin to intensify.

• The leader feels like he/she is walking on eggshells most of the time.

References

Berman, A. ( 1975). Group psychotherpay training: Issues and models. Small Group Research. 6, 3, 325 - 344.

Yalom, I. ( w Leszcz, M.) (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. (5th ed.) NY: Basic Books

Authors:  Jocelyn Levitan, MA; Maryam Kia-Keating, PhD; Merith Cosden, PhD; Caryll Sprague, MA; and Jessica Adams, PhD

Latino children are an underserved population (Kataoka et al., 2002) who are at increased risk for experiencing domestic violence (NTCSN, 2005). Thus, it is vital to increase our understanding of the therapeutic factors that may be of particular importance when working with traumatized Latino youth. Group intervention is the most common form of treatment for children exposed to domestic violence (Rabenstein & Lehmann, 2000). As a result, these children may no longer see the world as a safe place, adults as trustworthy protectors, or events as predictable or controllable (Campbell & Lewandowski, 1997). By connecting with peers who have faced similar situations, group therapy can address the shame and secrecy often associated with the abuse, and normalize children’s reactions (Avinger & Jones, 2007; Ehntholt, Smith & Yule, 2005). Group therapy for traumatized children and adolescents has been found to be associated with a reduction of PTSD symptoms (Lindon & Nourse, 1994), anxiety (Carbonell & Parteleno-Barehmi, 1999), and depression (Sinclair et al., 1995). Although some studies have found group therapy to be an effective modality of treatment for Latino children who have experienced trauma (Kataoka et al., 2003), there is a paucity of research exploring the therapeutic factors involved in group treatment for this population. Some research indicates that there is a greater stigma regarding the utilization of mental health services amongst the Latino population (Dittman, 2005), which suggests that perceived group cohesion and connectedness in group therapy may be of increased significance. In fact, for collectivistic cultures like the Latino culture that emphasize cooperation, group approaches may be especially suitable (Stacciarini et al., 2007). Furthermore, the importance of personalismo, the Latino value of developing warm and friendly relationships, suggests that group connectedness could be an integral therapeutic factor in group treatment for Latino youth (Santiago-Rivera et al., 2002). Finally, it is also important to note that many Latino children may be experiencing significant acculturative stress, which may contribute to a greater feeling of disconnection with their caregivers (Mattson & Ruiz, 2005). Thus, when parental or family support is inadequate, children can learn to seek-out the support of peers.

Overall, the research on group therapy for children is relatively sparse compared to their adult counterparts and much of this research has focused exclusively on adolescents who have experienced sexual abuse (Foy & Trice, 2001; Glodic & Allen, 1998). There is also a dearth of research on the mechanisms of change involved in children’s groups. Thus, the aim of this pilot study is to fill the gap in research on therapeutic factors in group therapy for children and adolescents who have experienced domestic violence. More specifically, this study aims to examine the role of group cohesion in predicting coping behaviors and mental health. Finally, this study will be one of the first to investigate and assess the therapeutic factors in group therapy for Latino youth who have experienced domestic violence. METHODS At the time of this proposal, participants include 18 Latino children, ages 8-13, recruited from a trauma-focused community mental health clinic where they participated in a three-month group therapy program for mothers and children who have experienced domestic violence. . Data collection is ongoing and it is estimated that the number of participants will increase to approximately 40 participants (at which time further analyses will be conducted to examine the differential impact of gender and development). The domestic violence multi-family group therapy provides multi-family counseling for children ages 5-17 and their mothers who have experienced domestic violence in the home. The 3-month group program alternates between separate child and mother groups, and joint sessions to share their common experiences. Data was collected after the first and last sessions. The following measures were administered: Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere, 1996), the Group Cohesion Scale for Children, and the Children’s Coping Strategies Checklist (CCSC; Ayers et al., 1999). Pearson’s correlations and multiple linear regressions were conducted to ascertain whether perceived group cohesion was related to and predicted group outcomes including increased coping strategies and decreased trauma-related symptomology. RESULTS Regressions revealed that children’s perceived group cohesion was a significant predictor of increased support seeking behavior, F (1, 17) = 9.06, p < .01, and increased use of active coping strategies, F (1, 16) = 9.87, p < .01, at post-treatment. The “Support Seeking” coping dimension on the CCSC included items that measured a child’s use of other people as resources to assist in seeking solutions to the problem situation and a child’s involvement of other people in listening to feelings or providing understanding to help the child to be less upset. The “Active Coping” dimension includes items related to the child’s ability to engage in problem-solving or engaged in positive reframing of maladaptive thoughts. However, group cohesion did not significantly predict distraction or avoidance coping, or trauma-related psychopathology (anger, depression, anxiety, or PTSD). Finally, coping strategy dimensions were not significantly correlated with psychopathology.

Conclusions:  Preliminary data analyses for this study suggest that group cohesion plays an essential role in support seeking and active coping among Latino children exposed to domestic violence. These findings are important as past research has found that the use of active coping strategies is related to higher self-esteem and social competence, lower self-reports of depression, and fewer externalizing problems (Ayers, 1991; Clarke, 2006). However, the current study did not support previous research that has found a relationship between coping and psychopathology. The current findings also failed to corroborate previous research that has found a relationship between group cohesion and psychopathology in adults (Crowe & Grenyer, 2008). These insignificant findings may be due to a delayed effect between the acquirement of coping strategies and their impact on psychopathology. Clinical implications of this study will focus on fostering sense of cohesion, through building trust and enhancing relationships in group therapy for children exposed to domestic violence. Finally, cultural considerations and the role of group cohesion in trauma-exposed Latino children’s groups will be discussed.

Authors:  Don P. Trahan, MS; and Jeanmarie Keim, PhD

Research Focus:  Minority (i.e., small number of members holding a particular view) influence is defined as a form of social influence that takes place when a majority is being influenced to accept the beliefs or behavior of a minority. Moscovici (1985) determined that minority group influence can happen under certain conditions (e.g., a minority must be consistent, yet not appear rigid or dogmatic). In addition to consistency, other behavioral patterns that members in the minority opinion must possess are confidence, unbiased appearance, and the ability resist social pressure and abuse. This study investigated whether individuals identified as racial minorities convey social influence over the majority in the same manner that minority opinion members exert influence in a group setting. In addition, this study evaluated how minority group members view their group experience.

Method:  The current study makes use of qualitative analysis (i.e., content analysis) to explain minority group influence. A total of twenty male undergraduate students taking introductory psychology classes at a southwestern university participated in this study. Participants were divided into groups of four. Each group consisted of three members identified as the majority (i.e., Hispanic-American) and one member identified as a racial minority (i.e., African-American). Participants evaluated the pros and cons of affirmative action and came to a unanimous decision about its relevance in society today. Following the group interaction, participants filled out a questionnaire about their experience in the group (i.e., to what extent did each participant contribute during the group interaction).

Results:  As predicted, the results from the study suggest that reasoning, justifications, and support are significant components of racial minority group influence (as they are for minority opinion influence). In all five task groups, when African-American speakers argued in favor of or against affirmative action, they provided reasoning (n = 37) for their claims. In addition, each time African-American speakers presented a pro or a con (i.e., reasoning) of affirmative action, claims were followed with justifications (n = 76) to further enhance their position (i.e., claims for or against affirmative action) and gain the support of the majority group. In each task group, the majority group members were supportive of the claims made by African-American participants. Hispanic-American participants used a much greater proportion of support (n = 112) for African-American speakers reasoning and justifications for or against affirmative action in comparison with counter-support (n = 37) against their position. However, there was an inconsistency with reports of group experience from African-American participants’ point-of-view in comparison with observational data.

Conclusion:  According to Clark (1988) a consistent minority opinion disrupts established norms and creates uncertainty, doubt and conflict. In turn, this can lead to the majority taking the minority opinion seriously and questioning their own views. The results suggest that individuals identified as racial minorities have a better chance of persuading the majority when they use methods that are successful for minority opinion members i.e. reasoning and provide justifications for claims.

Authors:  Diana J. Semmelhack, PsyD; Sharon Song, PhD; Karen Farrell, PsyD; and Julieanne Pojas, MA

There are few housing options for severely mentally ill individuals other than long term care facilities (Nursing Homes) in Illinois. There is up to a two year wait for individuals seeking placement in standardized group homes. New Beginnings Community Services (NBCS) in conjunction with the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI of DuPage County, IL.) launched an innovative housing option. This modification of traditional housing involved the implementation of a Group-as-a-Whole framework. The Group-as-a-Whole component included bi-weekly, one hour meetings with a group consultant (licensed clinical psychologist) who directed comments to the whole group versus any given individual in the group. Concurrently, group members learned social psychology concepts believed necessary for effective functioning in the community during a 15 minute didactic portion of each group. The emphasis on the whole group versus any specific member made the group a safer place to risk confronting painful issues. Ultimately the house members formed a team (group-as-a-whole) geared towards problem solving and effective conflict resolution. Concurrently, didactics and interpretations focused on negotiating relationships with other groups in the community, appeared to enhance the quality of inter-group interactions.

Ten subjects completed the 16-week evaluation period in the control group setting (standard group home) and 7 subjects were evaluated during the group-as-a-whole treatment. Baseline measures of depression, anxiety, agency and cohesiveness before the start of treatment were compared between groups by unpaired t-test. Significant changes from baseline were determined in each group by repeated measures analysis of variance with Tukey Tests used for post-hoc testing. There was no difference between the control and experimental groups at baseline. After the 16 week treatment, self-efficacy did not change in the control group but increased by 50% in the experimental group from baseline to 16 weeks. The group-as-a-whole setting also produced a significant 35% increase in cohesiveness from baseline to 16 weeks of treatment. In contrast, the control group showed no significant change in cohesiveness. A recent study has shown that gains in cohesion were maintained even after five years.

Authors:  Joseph R. Miles, PhD; and Dennis M. Kivlighan, PhD

Experiences with diversity in college are related to positive student outcomes (e.g., Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, & Gurin, 2002). Gurin et al. suggest that, for these experiences to be most impactful, students must experience meaningful, cross-group interactions, rather than merely numerical representation of diverse groups on campus. One group intervention designed to provide students with this type of interaction is intergroup dialogue. 

Intergroup dialogue, based on Allport’s (1954) contact hypothesis, is a co-facilitated, face-to-face intervention that brings together individuals from social groups that have a history of tension (e.g., People of Color and White People) with the goals of consciousness raising, building relationships across differences, and strengthening capacities to promote social justice (p. 9, Zúñiga, Nagda, Chesler, & Cytron-Walker, 2007). 

Dialogue occurs over several weeks, following a four-stage model that includes developing relationships, exploring group similarities and differences, dialoguing about “hot topics” (e.g., affirmative action), and developing action plans and commitment to social justice (e.g., Zúñiga, Nagda, & Sevig, 2002). 

Research supports positive outcomes of intergroup dialogue, including stereotype reduction; increased empathy, understanding, perspective-taking; improved cross-group interaction skills; and increased awareness about social structures (see Dessel & Rogge, 2006). While evidence for positive outcomes is strong, little research exists on the processes involved in dialogue, including how participants experience the developing group climate. Research on other group interventions (e.g., group psychotherapy) has found group climate is related to positive group member outcomes (e.g., Ogrodniczuk & Piper, 2003), so understanding participants’ experiences of the climate may be important to provide co-facilitators with the skills necessary to foster a productive climate, and to ensure positive outcomes.

Recent research on group climate in intergroup dialogues found increases in engagement, decreases in avoidance, and stability in conflict over time (Miles & Kivlighan, 2008). Unfortunately, this research did not examine whether individuals from different social identity groups perceive the climate similarly. Because dialogue brings together individuals from social identity groups with differing levels of societal power (i.e., target and agent groups), it is important to examine whether the experience of dialogue is the same across participants.

While there is no research examining perceptions of group climate across social identity groups, a growing body of research has found differences in how target and agent groups experience campus climate. For example, students of color, LGBT students, and women perceive campus climate more negatively than White students, heterosexual students, and men, respectively (e.g., Gloria, Hird, & Navaro, 2001; Rankin et al., 2010; Morris, 2003). Given that target and minority students’ experiences of campus climate differ, and that students’ experiences of climate have important implications for student success, it is important to examine whether the very interventions designed to provide diversity experience are experienced similarly by target and agent group members.

Another important reason for examining perceptions of group climate across different social identity groups comes from research on team cognition (e.g., Rentsch & Woehr, 2004) and perceptual distance (Gibson, Cooper, & Conger, 2009) that finds that when members of a team hold similar cognitions or perceptions, they are more effective. As such, it may also be that when dialogue participants have similar perceptions of the climate, the dialogue may be more effective.

Method:  Participants: Groups. Groups were five intergroup dialogues at a large, Mid-Atlantic university. Themes included “Black Men/Black Women,” “LGBT/Heterosexual,” “Men and Women,” and “People of Color/White People.”

Group Members:  Group members were 44 undergraduate students enrolled in the dialogues.

Measure: Group Climate Questionnaire-Short Form. The GCQ-S  (MacKenzie, 1983) is a 12- item measure with three scales: engagement, avoidance, and conflict. Items are answered Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). Engagement includes items that “reflect the importance of the group for the members and a sense of closeness between them” (Mackenzie, 1983, p. 165). Avoidance centers “on the idea of avoidance of responsibility by the members for their own change process” (MacKenzie, 1983, pp. 165-166). Conflict scale “deals with interpersonal conflict and distrust” (MacKenzie, 1983, p. 166).

Procedure:  Groups met weekly for two-hours, for seven consecutive weeks. Following each session, group members completed the GCQ-S via an internet survey.

Results:  Mean climate scores were calculated for each scale, by social identity group (i.e., agent and target) for each dialogue group, for each session. Three separate three-level hierarchical linear modeling analyses were run, one each with engagement, avoidance, and conflict serving as the dependent variable; and with social identity group nested within session, nested within intergroup dialogue group. Social identity group and time (i.e., session) served as the independent variables. Social identity status was coded as 0 for target group, and 1 for agent group.  

A significant interaction between social identity group and session was found for engagement, such that members of target groups were more likely to rate engagement as relatively stable over time, and members of agent groups were more likely to see variation (either increases or decreases) in engagement over time. There was no significant interaction effect of social identity group and time for either avoidance or conflict. However, overall, agent groups rated the climate as less avoiding than target groups.

Conclusions:  Previous research suggests that group climate development in intergroup dialogue includes increased engagement, decreased avoidance, and stable conflict (Miles & Kivlighan, 2008). Results of the current study suggest, however, that perceptions of group climate may differ among target and agent group members. Specifically, target group members appear to perceive less change in engagement, whereas agent group members appear to perceive change.

That there are differences in perceptions in climate by social identity group is consistent research finding differences in perceptions of campus climate between target and agent groups (e.g., Gloria, Hird, & Navaro, 2001; Rankin et al., 2010; Morris, 2003). Because perceptions of group climate are related to member outcomes in group interventions (e.g., Ogrodniczuk & Piper, 2003), this finding may imply differential outcomes of intergroup dialogue for members of agent and target groups. Based on this finding, future research is needed to examine whether differential experiences of group climate relate to differential outcomes for target and agent group members.

Author:  Lee Gillis, PhD

How can students best understand the usefulness of effect sizes, confidence intervals, and practical significance when much of their education has focused on the importance of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST)? Perhaps participating in group activities and collecting data on individual and collective self efficacy in their weekly cooperative groups can provide such insight. Twenty one undergraduates at a public liberal arts university in the southeastern US were randomly assigned to three leaderless groups that met once per week and participated in pre-assigned group activity sessions over ten weeks. Each week they completed a simple global pre-activity and post-activity measure of collective self-efficacy. Immediately following each group session, each group member completed the General Self Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Each week group members contributed postings to a discussion board that described the “what”, “so what”, and “now what” of their experience. They also commented on their observations of the means of the weekly survey data. At the end of the semester, R2 was computed as the effect size for each week and plotted on a line graph with 95%CIs. Group members wrote individual research papers and gave a collective poster presentation using the quantitative data supported by their discussion postings. Both paper and presentation utilized the construct of practical significance as a predictive indicator of the group’s weekly process. This poster will highlight this classroom teaching-research experience and describe students confusion and insights into NHST and effect sizes.

References

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.

Authors:  Ashley K. Piwowarski, PsyD; Karen E. Farrell, PsyD; and Tiffany Keller, PsyD

This project represents the first attempt to systematically evaluate the effectiveness of the psychoeducational group intervention, StronGirls. The program is designed to address relational issues among all girls enrolled in 7th grade at a private grade school located in the suburbs of a large Midwestern city. StronGirls, rooted in relational-cultural and feminist theories, incorporates these theoretical approaches into an intervention model, making use of psychoeducation, skill-building, experiential learning, and emotional processing. Using a sample of 27 student participants, their parent(s)/guardian(s), and two teachers, a research protocol which examined use of relational aggression and prosocial behavior was implemented pre-, post-, and six months after intervention. Results demonstrated increases in prosocial behaviors and declines in relational aggression following intervention; maintenance of many of these changes was documented at follow-up. The current project contributes significantly to the present literature surrounding school-based social-emotional intervention options, serves as the empirical foundation for StronGirls, and enhances confidence in the effectiveness of our interventions.

Authors:  Dennis M. Kivlighan III, BA; Andrea Salazar, MA; and Gwynneth Schell, MEd

The American Psychological Association (APA) is about the production and use of psychological knowledge by researchers and practitioners. The psychological knowledge within APA is partitioned into areas of specialized knowledge across the various divisions within the association. This specialized knowledge is disseminated across these various divisions of APA through journal publications as well as through the Annual Meeting of APA. Unfortunately the dissemination of this specialized knowledge may not be shared throughout the organization effectively. Group dynamic researchers refer to this situation as the problem of distributed knowledge. Research about the use of knowledge groups within organizations shows that individuals and organizations often inadequately use the full extent of information available within the organization (Brodbeck, Kerschreiter, Mojzisch, & Schultz-Hardt, 2007). To the extant that knowledge is not equal shared or distributed across the divisions within APA researchers and practitioners are at a disadvantage. For example, researchers may mistakenly believe that an issue has not been examined because of a lack of research in the literature that they regularly examine; when in fact this issue has been studied in a related area.  The present study addresses the issue of maldistributed  psychological knowledge by examining how this knowledge is distributed across the divisions within APA. Specifically, we examined the 2010 APA Annual Convention program to understand the extent to which knowledge was shared across the divisions.

This is the first study to examine the sharing of distributed knowledge within the divisions of APA. However, Previous research has examined the structure of APA through the patterns of individual membership in multiple divisions. Specifically, Adkins (1954) factored analyzed this multiple membership data to identify the underlying structure of the APA divisions, in which seven factors cut across the existent divisions. These factors were labeled, quantitative, theoretical, experimental, personnel, clinical, social, and developmental. Unfortunately Adkins (1954) and similar studies only explore organizational structure while overlooking patterns of knowledge distribution and change.

Utilizing social networking analysis the current study explores these patterns of knowledge distribution and change within the 2010 APA Annual Convention. As described by Krebs (2000; 2010) social network analysis [SNA] is the process by which relationships and flows (e.g. knowledge transference) between people, groups, organizations, computers, URLs, and other connected information/knowledge entities are mapped and measured. In the current study we utilized SNA to examine the flow of information between groups (i.e., divisions) within APA. Within a social network there consists an arrangement of nodes and links. In this case the nodes are the divisions in APA and the links are the patterns of co-sponsorship of programs during the 2010 APA Annual Convention. This study then serves two purposes: (a) to examine the distribution of knowledge across the divisions of APA and (b) to introduce and utilize SNA as a valuable tool for analyzing knowledge distribution patterns in groups and organizations.

Method Data:  We collected the data for this study through examining the various divisions’ co- sponsorship of programs in the 2010 APA Annual Convention. For each division we coded the number of times the division at hand was the primary sponsor for programs with each of the other divisions. For each division we also coded the number of times the division at hand acted as a secondary sponsor for a program with other divisions. This analysis resulted in an asymmetric similarity matrix for all of the divisions.

Analysis:  The similarity matrix described above was analyzed using UCINet (Borgatti, 2002). Utilizing UCINet we identified and analyzed the nodes (APA divisions) and relationships in the 2010 APA Annual Convention. In addition UCINet was used in order to identify the centrality (the social power of the various divisions, the centralization of knowledge within APA (centralized vs. decentralized), and the cohesion, which is the degree to which divisions are connected to each other).

Results:  The results of the UCINet analysis is a social network or network graph which illustrates the links among all of the divisions. In addition we present the network measures described above in table form. Currently we are running the analysis and further results will be presented at the conclusion of the analysis.

Discussion:  We discuss the implications of these results for communication across the divisions of APA and we also discuss the future use of SNA to examine knowledge structures within group research.

Authors:  Qi Shi, MEd; and Sam Steen, PhD

In this study we use a best evidence synthesis methodology to describe the factors associated with effective group counseling interventions for children and adolescents in schools that have outcomes focused on academic achievement. A best evidence synthesis literature review uses consistent, clear standards to identify unbiased, salient information from experimental studies and then discusses each appropriate study while computing effect sizes (Slavin, 1986; 1995). Additionally, context, design, and findings of the studies are discussed. This method is similar to meta-analysis, but includes a more detailed description of key studies in a format typical of narrative reviews. In this case, this strategy is appropriate for group counseling studies related to children and adolescents because they are few in number and are substantially and methodologically different (Slavin & Cheung, 2005). In order to conduct a best evidence synthesis, the first criterion used to identify unbiased, salient data from experimental studies must be clearly articulated followed by a discussion of each study/article selected while computing effect sizes. Furthermore, other factors occasionally overlooked in meta-analyses such as contextual factors (e.g., school settings where appropriate), research design (e.g., sample size, group leader characteristics), and findings (e.g., both significant and non-significant when reported) of the studies will be analyzed. This research is important because there is considerable variation in the degree and type of implementation of group work within the school setting and more theoretical and conceptual research, evaluation and outcome studies, and sound information on strategies for implementing and facilitating groups in school are needed (Akos & Milsom, 2007). In this poster presentation, the participants will here details about the methods (e.g., search procedures, definition of terms, exclusion criteria), results (e.g., description of studies), and implications for building upon the current literature on groups with children and adolescents attending to academic achievement as well as strategies for successfully using this methodology in the future.

Authors:  Michael J. D. Irvine, BA; Krystal R. Gregg, MA; and Michelle Anderson, MS, MA

We studied how group cohesion contributes to treatment outcome in the inpatient psychiatric setting for individuals diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder. Self-report measures for quality of life (ORS) and group cohesion (CALPAS-G) were administered once during the course of treatment. Significant correlations were found between (1) participant quality of life and membership understanding/involvement (2) and participant quality of life and working strategy consensus. The clinical implications of this study are presented in context of this studies limitations.

Authors:  Paul B. Gold, PhD; and Dennis M. Kivlighan, PhD

For decades, researchers have assumed that, in psychotherapeutic contexts, individual persons’ change over time can be broadly described by a common trajectory (e.g., linear, quadratic), and then finely estimated by deviations from that common trajectory. However, persons change in unpredictable ways, posing a challenge to developers of new therapies and to therapists attempting to identify a particular therapeutic approach best suited for a particular individual whose needs may require, for example, modification of existing therapies, or a mix of several therapeutic approaches. 

In order to better match a person’s needs with a therapeutic strategy, we need to know more about whether there are clusters of qualitatively different change trajectories over time that more closely describe the “messy/fuzzy” real-world impact of psychotherapies on “subgroups” of persons with psychological problems. In this study, we offer a demonstration of how an empirically-based analytic approach, non-metric multidimensional scaling (MDS), can identify, a posteriori, clusters of change trajectories derived by reports of members in group counseling about what therapeutic mechanisms had the greatest impact on reducing their problems with interpersonal relationships. 

Method:  Participants were 4 male and 32 female students at a large Midwestern university enrolled in an elective class on group processes. Ages ranged from 19 to 45 years, and racial/ethnic backgrounds were 33 white, and 3 of color. 

Therapeutic Factors:  Several taxonomies of therapeutic factors have been empirically evaluated, and we chose on developed by Bloch, Reibstein, Crouch, Holroyd, & Themen (1979), specifying three superordinate categories of “Affective Factors”, “Cognitive Factors,” and “Behavioral Factors.

Process Measure:  Coding Scheme for Critical Incidents. For each session, group members responded to the following questions: “Of the events which occurred in this session, which one do you feel was the most important to/for you personally? Why was it important to you?” Using Bloch et al.’s (1979) taxonomy of 10 therapeutic factors, three independent analysts rated each group members’ session by session critical incident reports on all factors. 

Outcome Measure:  Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP; Horowitz et al., 1988) is 127-item self-report measure tapping a wide range of interpersonal difficulties. Group members completed the IIP prior to the first session and after the final session.
Procedure. Four counseling psychology graduate students each led one of the four personal growth groups, which met twice a week for 14 weeks, and followed an interpersonal counseling approach. All group members provided written informed consent to participate in this study. The University IRB approved the study protocol.

Results:  The average Pre-Group IIP score was 1.11 (SD = .48), and average Pre-Group IIP score was 0.92 (SD = .52; t (df = 35) = -3.06, p < .05). We operationalized therapeutic outcome as the difference between Post-Group and Pre-Group IIP scores, controlling pre-group IIP score differences.

Aggregated mean ratings on critical incident reports across members and sessions, was highest for the Behavioral factors (M = 1.88, SD = 1.41), and lower for Affective Factors (M = 1.60, SD = 1.02) and Cognitive Factors (M = 1.64, SD = 1.07).  The proximities computed for the 69 data points (23 sessions each for the Affective, Behavioral and Cognitive therapeutic factors) were submitted to the SPSS non-metric MDS procedure, yielding three-dimensional solution. 

Dimension 1 (Figure 1) reveals a striking pattern over time of consistently high scale values for Affective therapeutic factors, low scale values for Behavioral therapeutic factors, and relatively flat scale values for Cognitive factors. We therefore named Dimension 1, “Passive Feeling,” to capture the tendency of some group members to disproportionately attend to their emotional reactions to group sessions over time, while refraining from overt behavioral action on those emotions.

Dimension 2 (Figure 2) reveals a vastly different patterns over time characterized by fluctuating scale values for all therapeutic factors, marked by a tendency for Affective and Behavioral Factors to rise and fall together, but in the opposite direction of scale values for Cognitive factors. We therefore named Dimension 2, “Experiencing and Reflecting,” to capture the alternating patterns of high scale values for Experiencing Factors (Affective and Behavioral) followed by high scale values for Reflecting Factors (Cognitive).

Dimension 3 (Figure 3) reveals a striking volatility of Affective and Behavioral factor scale values tending to occur in single sessions, with little, if any, carry over to the immediately following session. We therefore named Dimension 3, “Volatile Experiencing,” to capture the high frequency of extreme fluctuations in magnitude and direction of Affective and Behavioral factor scale values.

Pre-test IIP scores were significantly higher than post-test IIP scores (Γ = 0.35, t = 2.55, p <. .05). The more that a group member’s patterns of ratings on critical incident reports over time for the Affective, Behavioral and Cognitive therapeutic factors resembled the scale value patterns for Dimension 2 (Experiencing and Reflecting profile), the lower their post-test IIP scores (Γ = -0.31, t = 3.69, p < .01). 

Discussion:  Our exploratory non-metric MDS analysis uncovered three latent patterns of change in the importance that group members attributed to events reflecting of different therapeutic factors.  The Passive Feeling Profile described group members who strongly emphasized acceptance and catharsis over time. We speculate these group members focused their attention on emotions, but did not actively engage in the group process, depriving themselves of opportunities to address affectively-related interpersonal problems. 

The Experiencing and Reflecting profile described group members who displayed several two to four session sequences of higher emphasis on Affective and Behavioral factors and less emphasis on Cognitive factors, followed by a reversal to higher emphasis on Cognitive factors, and less emphasis upon Affective and Behavioral factors, that would be described by Yalom (1995) as a “self-reflective loop,” leading to maximal therapeutic gain. This profile was the only of the three associated Pre-Post changes in interpersonal problems.

Volatile Experiencing profile described group members who reported a somewhat chaotic group experience, with Affective and Behavioral therapeutic factors highly valued in one session, but not valued in the following session, and an overall disorganized pattern of highs and lows for all factors. This profile was not associated Pre-Post changes in interpersonal problems. 

References

Bloch, S., Reibstein, J., Crouch, E., Holroyd, P., & Themen, J. (1979). A method for the study of therapeutic factors in group psychotherapy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 257-263.
Ding, C. S., Davison, M. L., & Petersen, A. C. (2005). Multidimensional scaling analysis of growth and change. Journal of Educational Measurement, 42, 171-191.

Horowitz, L. M., Rosenberg, S. E., Baer, B. A., Ureno, G., Villasenor, V. S. (1988). Inventory of interpersonal problems: Psychometric properties and clinical applications. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 885-892.
Yalom, I. D. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (4th ed.). New York: Basic Books.