Among our first lessons in humanistic psychology was Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization featured at the pinnacle. His theories of human motivation are commonly taught in undergraduate and graduate psychology classrooms. Maslow has been credited as a founder of humanistic psychology (DeCarvalho, 1990), and he was among our early inspirations for choosing a humanistic psychotherapy orientation. However, learning of the cultural critiques of this model as cultural appropriation and biased towards individualistic values (Feigenbaum & Smith, 2020; Smith & Feigenbaum, 2012; Wachter, 2003; Yurdakul & Arar, 2023) caused us to question Maslow’s work. By exploring the literature, we have learned that though there is often partial validity to these critiques, cultural elements of his theory of self-actualization are sometimes misinterpreted and/or overlooked. Maslow (1965) himself cautioned: “Beware of stressing only the pleasures of ... actualization of the individual self. Not enough attention has been given to being in a [loving] community with which one can identify” (p. 24). Researchers have also expanded the cultural and modern relevance of his work. In this brief paper, we will provide an overview of the cultural debate and contemporary adaptations to Maslow’s work for students and practitioners in humanistic psychology today.
Cultural critique of Maslow’s theory
A core critique that has emerged of Maslow’s theory of human motivation is a neglect to credit the Blackfoot people for some of his ideas and accurately convey their beliefs (Smith & Feigenbaum, 2012). In 1938, Maslow spent six weeks living, learning, and working among a community of Blackfoot people on the Siksika reservation in Alberta, Canada (Feigenbaum & Smith, 2020). The purpose of Maslow’s stay was to conduct an anthropological study of the security needs of the Blackfoot people under the direction of Ruth Benedict (Smith & Feigenbaum, 2012). Maslow (1943) wrote that this "summer's field work with the Northern Blackfoot Indians... influenced” his insights about democratic (versus authoritarian) character structure (p. 401), a core aspect of self-actualization. After he completed his work with the Blackfoot, Maslow concluded that individuals fit themselves into their given cultural environments but remain distinctly separate from the culture. In other words, people adapt to their surroundings, but individual personality factors provide a stronger basis for behavior and needs than cultural factors.
Head and Blood, two Blackfoot educators, posited that Maslow’s approach to scientific inquiry was that of detachment and dehumanization (Smith & Feigenbaum, 2012). Furthermore, the authors argued that Maslow adopted and misapplied the ideas on synergy of his mentor on the project, Ruth Benedict, with a less holistic notion of the individual and culture. Maslow has not been without cultural critics in other examples as well, including early research he conducted on women’s sexuality that reflected gendered and sexist leanings (Cullen & Gottell, 2002).
Re-interpreting Maslow
Another body of literature suggests that this interpretation of his theory omits significant details made by Maslow in his later writings that evolved over three decades of research (Bland, 2026; Jones, 2020). For example, Maslow often attempted to emphasize the paradox that self-actualization entails both autonomy and social interest with the intention of improving culture and connecting to community (Maslow, 1971, 1987, 1999). Maslow identified the Blackfoot as an exemplar of a secure, high synergy society, which he contrasted with the rugged individualism of and hypermasculinity in the U.S. at that time (an insecure, low synergy society). He (Maslow, 1971) regarded the latter as a form of social pathology that inhibits (versus promotes) the awareness of and acting in accordance with the realities of interdependence that he associated with self-actualization.
Furthermore, Maslow (1987, 1999) identified independence from groupthink as characteristic of self-actualization. In his later writings, the self-transcendent aspects of self-actualization took on increasing focus on his work (Maslow, 1971). With such autonomy, an individual can begin to understand people from diverse sociocultural contexts and contribute to society as a whole, instead of focusing on a discrete and isolated environment. This effort represented some of Maslow’s cultural consciousness and attempts to avoid ethnocentrism.
Compton (2018) addressed other myths of self-actualization—that it is not backed by empirical research to support the concept, or that Maslow’s theory rejected scientific psychology. Maslow in fact saw the relationship between humanistic and scientific psychology as complementary and engaged in rigorous research to support his theory. Compton also discussed the misunderstanding that lower needs must be met before climbing up the hierarchy, which was not Maslow’s original intent. Maslow (1987) spoke about this issue:
[The statement that] if one need is satisfied, then another emerges…might give the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100% before the next need emerges…A more realistic description…would be in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfaction as we go up the hierarchy of prepotency…The emergence [of a new need] is not a sudden, saltatory phenomenon, but rather a gradual emergence by slow degrees” (pp. 27–28).
He viewed self-actualization as an idiosyncratic, ongoing process rather than a destination. Finally, the theory has been critiqued for being elitist and classist, assuming that self-actualized people are happier or wealthier than others. Maslow actually rejected happiness and wealth as the result of achieving our wants and needs, and instead suggested fulfillment and authenticity. Furthermore, self-actualization has been measurably demonstrated in homeless individuals, attributable to efficacy in survival (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 2000). In addition, in work environments, self-actualization has been found not to be confined to the upper echelon (Dorer & Mahoney, 2006).
Expansions and cultural adaptations of self-actualization
Recent articles on cultural adaptations of self-actualization theory have updated Maslow’s theory to different groups, emphasizing the cross-cultural experience of this phenomenon. For example, Ortiz (2020) described the centrality of the family and relationships as the source of experience and expression of self-actualization, and the context of Latinx culture and valuing familismo, personalismo, respeto, and simpatia—psychological health, family longevity, belongingness, affection, respect, and love.
Jones (2020) explored self-actualization in African American culture as represented by the lives of three well-known leaders: Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Booker T. Washington. Jones identified several core attributes common to their process of self-actualization. These qualities include a drive toward equality, social justice, socioeconomic fairness, and racial equity, as well as the advancement of understanding the oppressive experiences of African American communities. Jones identified 15 key attributes to self-actualization that were unique to his sample of African American men that he felt should be integrated or Maslow’s concept of self-actualization among culturally diverse individuals. He found more of what Maslow termed “nadir” experiences or low moments to be part of their process of development rather than “peak” or bliss experiences than what Maslow may have commonly found among self-actualized individuals given the context of poverty and disenfranchisement faced by the men in his study. Jones indicated that individuals belonging to African American culture may tend to center values in resilience, faith and justice, and finding fulfillment in the strength of one another as part of the process of self-actualization.
Moreover, Bland (2026) summarized advancements in conceptualizing self-actualization, which include existential, transpersonal, constructivist, and postmodern theories. It is clear that Maslow’s original conceptualization of self-actualization has come to include a wide range of cultural variations and conceptual expansions.
Conclusion
In sum, our review of the literature suggests that the cultural critiques of Maslow’s work contain both validity and myths. It is important to challenge inaccurate information but also acknowledge the cultural limitations to Maslow’s theory that reflect biases of his era and positionality. Training psychologists and practitioners can become informed about the cultural adaptations, conceptual expansions, and current applications of self-actualization. Humanistic psychologists can include diversity in their conceptualization of self-actualization with increased flexibility around the hierarchy that may be reflective of different cultural backgrounds. Further research in self-actualization for humanistic psychologists can continue to incorporate advocacy as part of this concept and allow the theory to achieve its own potential for growth in the current era of humanistic psychology.
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